Unit Five: Country Perspectives

Module Twenty Two: Ethiopia
Teacher’s Edition

Activity Two: Engage
Ethiopian History

Ethiopia has a rich history. It is the oldest independent country in Africa with a rich and proud tradition as an admired civilization that has lasted for more than 2,000 years. In this activity, you will learn about and explore the history of Ethiopia and how it has impacted the rest of the world.

Activity: As you go through this lesson, make a timeline of Ethiopian History. Find a dynasty, empire or ruler that you think helped Ethiopia – present that in a paragraph explaining why you feel this way and what facts you used to have to come to this decision.

History of Ethiopia

I. Prehistory
Some of the earliest human ancestors have been found in Ethiopia. Not only is Ethiopia home to the world’s oldest Homo sapiens dating back over 100,000 years, but also Australopithecus ramidus dated back 4.4 million years. Current day Ethiopia is part of the eastern and southern African cradle of civilization that is our universal heritage.

Animal husbandry has been practiced in Ethiopia for around 8,000 years.

II. Punt
The Punt were a people that lived in the horn of Africa (the area the Punt occupied is still being decided upon today) whom provided Egypt with luxury goods also Greeks eventually for such things as gold and ebony and ivory – many were believed to have been pastoralists living in round huts on stilts. What information is known about the Punt comes from records of Egyptian trade missions to this area. Punt has been believed to be in the area of southeastern Sudan, northern Ethiopia and Eritrea.

III. D’mat (Da’amat)
Da’amat – 800-300 B.C.E. – were a literate and developed civilization in Eritrea and Tigray highlands. They wrote inscriptions in a language and script similar to southern Arabia and also shared a common cultural background with them. Traces of their civilization do remain but they are few, such as Yeha (pictured below) a temple of the god Ilmuqah. It is the most ancient building in Ethiopia.

Image courtesy Selamta.net

IV. Proto-Axsum
During this time was trade with Egypt and Nubia, before the 2nd century B.C.E

V. The Axsum (Axum) Empire 1st C. BCE-10th C E
The Axsum Empire developed in Ethiopia during the 1st-10th centuries CE. At the beginning of its existence, Axsum flourished and was the most powerful state in the region. The empire gained much of their wealth from trade of items such as ivory, gold, tortoise shells and emeralds with places like Rome and India. Axsum was ruled by the “king of kings” (negusa nagast) who ruled over the imperial system of government.

During this empire important historical accomplishments such the creation of their own alphabet called Ge’ez, stelae (tomb markings made of stone), and coinage were developed. Ge’ez is a Semitic language that developed in the region of Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia. It was a language of peasantry that became an official language during the Axsumite Empire. It is no longer a dominant or spoken language in Ethiopia – though church services are often given in Ge’ez. Stelae (which may often be called obelisks) were made of stone and used to mark graves and burial chambers. The most famous stelae of the Aksumite Empire were the Obelisk of Axsum in Axsum. It was taken from Ethiopia by the Italians during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and finally returned to Ethiopia around 2003. These stelae were often tall and very heavy. The largest were used to mark the graves of royalty, while nobility would have smaller, less decorated stelae.

This stelae is a symbol from the Axsumite civilization

Image courtesy Africa Focus Database

Coinage was also a historical accomplishment of the Axsum Empire. They were the only empire in the region to offer coinage (when others couldn’t afford it or did not need it). It was a symbol of the wealth that they had gained from trading and agriculture. From 270-610, gold, silver and bronze coins were minted making the Kingdom of Axum the first African polity to issue their own coins. It not only simplified trade that occurred, but it marked the Axsumite kingdom as equal to its neighbors and an empire of great importance.

Rulers during the Axsumite Empire
There is limited information about many of the kings from the Axsumite Empire. Below is a table of dates and kings that served. There is more information on two particular kings which are focused on below.
*Those highlighted in yellow have more information given below.

King	Beginning Year of Rule
Zoskales	100
Gadarat (GDRT)	200
Adhebah (DBH)	230--240
Sembrouthes	250
Datawnas (DTWNS)	260
Endubis	270-300
Aphilas	Early 4th century
Wazeba	Early 4th century
Ousanas	320
Ezana	333-356
Mehadeyis (MHDYS)	350
Ouazebas	Late 4th century
Eon	400
Ebana	5th century
Nezool	5th century
Ousas	500
Kaleb	520
Alla Amidas	Mid 6th century
Wazena	Mid 6th century
Wa’zeb (W’ZB)	Mid 6th century
Ioel	Mid 6th century
Hataz	575
Saifu	577
Israel	590
Gersem	600
Armah	614
Ashama ibn Abjar	Died in 630

*This table is adapted from S.C. Munro-Hay, Axsum (Edinburgh: University Press, 1991), pp. 67f

There were also kings later in the Axsumite Empire, though there are no dates available for their reign. Later Kings included: Kwanstantinos, Wasan Sagad, Fere Shanay, Adre’az, Akla Wedem, Germa Safar, Zergaz, Degna Mikael, Bahr Ikela, Gum, ‘Aswomgum, Letem, Talatem, ‘Oda Gosh, ‘Ayzur, Dedem, Wededem, Wedem ‘Asfare, ‘Armah, Degna Djan, ‘Anbasa Wedem, and Dil Na’od (this list is based on E. A. Wallis Budge, A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, 1928 Oosterhout, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications, 1970, pp. 269f)

King Ezana of Axsum (320-356 C.E.)
King Ezana reigned as king in the Axsumite Empire from the years of 320-356 C.E. King Ezana succeeded his father still being a child, tradition states. He is known for his conversion to Christianity near the end of his reign. Following his lead most citizens of Axsum converted to Christianity, making Ethiopia one of very oldest predominantly Christian countries in the world. He had many successful military campaigns during the fourth century. He ruled a powerful group of nations that were included in the Axsum kingdom: Arabia, Saba, Abyssinia, Beja and Moroe.

Coinage from the Reign of King Ezana

King Kaleb
Kaleb became king around 520. In 523 he led an expedition to avenge the persecution of Christians in South Arabia. Because of this journey part of South Arabia was brought under Axsumite control. He also conquered small Jewish kingdoms in Arabia. Kaleb allowed the Jews to maintain their traditions and practices. As a consequence Jewish customs can still be found today within Ethiopian Christian traditions. Moreover, there was a migration of Jews to Axsum where they formed the Falasha community of Ethiopian Jews, a small remnant of which remains in Ethiopia, although there much of the Falasha community migrated to Israel in the 1980s and 1990s as the consequence of persecution by the Derg regime (see below). Kaleb became a military power and was a protector of Christians throughout the region.

Coinage from the Reign of King Kaleb

The Decline of the Axsumite Empire
The Islamic Empire began to build during the 7th-10th centuries. They took control over the Red Sea and much of the Nile River valley, which was at one time the trade route for the Axsumite Empire. This caused economic isolation for the Axsumite and forced them to move further into the highlands. This would lead to the decline of the Axsumite Empire. This isolation did contribute though to the monastic traditions of the Coptic Christian church. This tradition became very distinctive and often the sanctuaries were built into the walls of rock. Axsum was eventually taken over and the dark ages of Gudit begin.

VI. Gudit 12th Century
After the Axsumite kingdom began the rule of Gudit a non-Christian princess, who let the kingdom of Axsum, many say, go to waste (many say she would attempt to burn churches and other deeds). She usurped the throne and had a reign of around 40 years. The accounts of her ruling are incomplete. Many call this time in Ethiopian history the “dark ages”.

VII. Zagwe Dynasty 1150-1270 (usurpers)
The next empire of Ethiopia was the Zagwe Dynasty. It was a dynasty of the Agaw people who claimed descent from a companion of the Queen of Sheba. It is uncertain how many kings actually ruled during this dynasty. The capital of this dynasty was Roha (today known as Lalibela). It was during the Zagwe Dynasty that Islam begun to spread down the east coast of Africa, converting many who lived south and east of the Ethiopia highlands. The trade routes of the Red Sea were also controlled by Muslim traders. In spite of the increased influence and spread of Islam, this was the era of expansion for Christianity within Ethiopia. Christianity flourished in the highlands. The construction of 11 monolithic churches, were completed by King Lalibela at Roha. They were built out of solid volcanic rock in a shape like celestial Jerusalem. People of the Zagwe Dynasty were responsible for the continued development of Christianity – through such things as the building of churches and monasteries. They were supplied a patriarch upon request from the Coptic Church of Egypt. During this time Christian arts and literature were encouraged and it was a time of great artistic achievement for Ethiopia.

VIII. Solomonic Dynasty 1270 – 1974 (legitimate)
The Solomonic dynasty claim descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba through their son Menilek I. Menilek I was the first emperor of Ethiopia. Leaders of the Coptic Christian backed the Solomonic dynasty and in return the church was given control of vast stretches of land- which gave it base of wealth and power. Yekuno Amlak overthrew the last ruler of the Zagwe dynasty to re-establish the Solomonic Dynasty. He claimed his descent from the Solomonic lineage and began ruling Ethiopia in 1270. The Solomonic rule continued into the 1970s. There are different periods throughout this dynasty. Each period has significant occurrences that shape the history of Ethiopia and the Solomonic Dynasty. During this dynasty the capital was often moved, set up in a temporary place as the need to move would occur, they would pack up and move. Often tents would be used.

Terminology
Figurehead: A figurehead is a person who holds the head title (king, emperor, queen) but has no real authority or power.
Regent: One who acts as a ruler during an absence of a head authority.

Rulers During the Solomonic Dynasty and Periods of the Solomonic Dynasty	Years of Rule	Main Events
First Solomonic Period	1270-1527
Yekuno Amlak	1270-1285	* Much of what is known about this emperor is coming from an oral tradition Restored the Solomonic dynasty in Ethiopia Oral tradition tells that he was captured by the last Zagwe emperor – but he escaped and built an army to defeat the Zagwe king Church of Gennete Maryam built
Yagba Sivon	1285-1294	Tried to keep a maintained relationship with Muslim neighbors Had a bishop travel to Jerusalem as many of his subjects did
Sivon’s sons rule after his death at one year period increments in the following order: Senfa Ared Hezba Ared Qedma Ared Jin Ared Saba Ared	1294- 1299	All five sons would rule one year at a time
Wedem Arad	1299-1314	Fought against a jihad , had a team of travelers head to Europe (reasons unknown but thought to create a union of Christianity against Muslims)
Amda Seyon I	1314-1344	One of the most outstanding kings He extended the kingdom and also worked to consolidate it He had many Muslim conquests – gaining land for Ethiopia and allowed the spread Christianity Had many military campaigns during his reign, trade and arts flourished during this time
Newaya Krestos	1344-1372	Debre Igziabher that overlooks Lake Hayq was rebuilt during his reign Revolt occurred by a Muslim noble family (Walashma dynasty) they were captured by Krestos
Newaya Maryam	1372-1382	Continued revolts by the Walashma dynasty
Dawit I	1382-1413	Strong Christian whom during his reign surviving illustrated manuscripts were produced – Miracles of Mary and a copy of the gospels, continued raids from Muslim kingdoms Killed when a horse kicked him in the head
Tewodros I	1413-1414	9 months of rule During his rule it is often called the “golden age” of Ethiopia Killed in battle with Muslims
Yeshaq I	1414-1429	Continued battle with Muslims, contacted European leader for an alliance against the Muslim empires (the results of this are unknown) Killed in battle
Andreyas	1429-1430	-
Takla Maryam	1430-1433	-
Sarwe Iyasus	1433	Died of plague – ruled from around 4-8 months
Amda Iyasus	1433-1434	Served 8 months, little is known about his reign
Zar’a Ya’qob	1434-1468	A great leader of Ethiopia Married Eleni – she converted to Christianity after marrying the emperor – played an important role in the royal family and played a leading role in the government as regent Debre Berhan- capital for his reign after viewing bright light in the sky (which is now to have been believed to have been the Haley’s Comet) Held firm against Islamic threats, and expanded the territory of Ethiopia Became afraid that his family was plotting against him Would become a true dictator – he would often kill those who did not agree with his rulings and beliefs with faith (even family members) Author of religious works
Baeda Maryam	1468-1478	Had peace treaties with Southern sultans, but eventually conflicts would flair up again. His tomb would be destroyed by the Oromo in 1709 during a raid
Eskender	1478-1494	Died at age of 22, was a very young emperor and had a regent serve alongside him There was European influence during this period – some were even in the emperor’s court
Amda Seyon II	1494	He became a pawn in a struggle over control of the throne which would lead to his death after 6 months of taking control of the throne
Na’od	1494-1508	Killed in a Muslim campaign – Empress Eleni heavily relied upon during his reign
Dawit II (Lebna Dengel)	1508-1540	Early during his reign (when he was not yet of age) Queen Eleni was regent In his reign Portugal was also attacking Muslim states and they stayed 6 years until they felt that Ethiopia had control of the Muslim threat Ethiopia and Dawit suffered greatly during this period in time, when the Muslim attacks were constant and devastating to Ethiopia – Debre Libanos Ahmad Gragn (Muslim) occupied the Christian Highlands Portugal did come to help, but it was too late – Dawit had already been killed 1540
Great Oromo Migration Period Invasion of Gragn (1527-1543) Ottoman Invasion (1557-18th c.)	1527- 17th c.	At the beginning of the 16th century, the Portuguese became interested in finding Prestor John – a mythical Christian ruler – this interest would help develop a relationship with Portugal that would help Ethiopia with Muslim invasions. Great Oromo Migration: In the 16th century the Oromo migration began. Inhospitable land that they called their home caused them to move north into Ethiopian highlands. *Muslim-Christian Wars:* Invasion of Gragn: Imam Ahmad invaded Ethiopia in 1531, defeating the Ethiopians in many of the conflicts, destroying churches and monasteries. Ethiopia had to rely on the Portuguese at this point to help them get rid of the invaders. Ottoman Invasion: The Ottoman empire became interested in Ethiopia for the hope that slaves could be captured there along with other economic benefits. In 1557 they moved into parts of Eritrea and Ethiopia
Gelawdewos	1540-1559	Jesuits arrive in Ethiopia to convert Coptic Christians to Roman Catholicism, Muslim empires attempt to gain ground in Ethiopia – causes trouble with the trade of goods such as firearms
Menas	1559-1563	During an invasion of Ethiopia he was captured and taken prisoner. Eventually he was traded for another prisoner taken by Ethiopia in the Battle of Wayna Doga. He became emperor upon return and died from fever amidst battles with the Ottoman.
Sarsa Dengel	1563-1597	First to campaign against the Oromo Campaigned in many battles during his reign, died from eating fish from a river – where the monks had warned him not to eat fish
Yaqob	1597-1603, 1604-1606	Body was never found, was seven when he came to the throne Killed in battle
Za Dengel	1603-1604	Meant to be emperor earlier but Yaqob the Empresses son was instead, he was then seized and taken to religious retreat. When he became emperor he was meant only to be placed as a figurehead, he ended up perishing in battle
Gondarine Dynasty	1606-1755	The Gondarine Dynasty was a time where Gondar became the capital for emperors of Ethiopia. No longer was the capital stationed in tents as they moved. During this dynasty there were 44 churches, castles established. Early on in the dynasty there were powerful emperors.
Susenyos	1606-1632	Succeeded Yaqob when he died in battle He had many campaigns against the Oromo and Agaw, he turned to Catholicism during his reign, eventually allowed freedom of religious practice in Ethiopia , he abdicated his son to rule after him
Fasilides	1632-1667	Restored traditional Ethiopian Orthodox beliefs, Founded the city of Gondar Removed the Portuguese Jesuits Built a stone castle in Gondar – Fasilides’ Castle
Yohannes I	1667-1682	Continuing religious debates (synods began here and continued during Dawit III rule), visiting Catholics were executed
Iyasu I	1682-1706	He had a strong administration that encouraged trade, had reform, etc. Assassinated by his own son
Tekle Haymanot I	1706-1708	Had his own father murdered – he was disliked because of this and was stabbed to death by his father’s courtiers
Tewoflos	1708-1711	Many executions occurred under his rule
Yostos	1711-1716	Faced an unstable political situation at first- was only able to live in Gondar (left only to hunt), eventually when things stabilized, he was able to build 2 churches
Dawit III	1716-1721	Important religious occurrences happened during his reign. Capuchin Missions- Capuchin monks from Ireland and Great Britain entered without permission, were found to be of competing beliefs, and were stoned to death Synod of the Ethiopian Church-monks from Debra Libanos were killed by the emperor due to their persistent complaints about being the losing party in the synod
Bakaffa	1721-1730	Married Mentewab – which many believe was his most important contribution to the country
Iyasu II	1730-1755	Empress Mentewab was crowned co-ruler for her underage son (he was age eight when crowned) Struggled to run his empire, lost military campaigns, had locusts and famine plague his ruling
Zemene Mesafit	1755-1855	Decades of Civil War, assassinations and power struggles for power – monarchy grew unstable due to the problems of the monarchy (many deaths – assassinations, etc.) Gondarine empire was falling “Era of the Princes”
Iyoas I	1755-1769	He favored Oromo – and this caused issues during his rule – he was deposed and murdered – because of this the power of the emperor was compromised and power now laid more in the hands of nobles and military commanders
Yohannes II	1769	-
Tekle Haymanot II	1769-1777	Lost reign during 1770 briefly to Susenyos II
Salomon II	1777-1779	Credited for building Qeddus Fasilides Church in Gondar
Tekle Giyorgis I	1779-1800	His rule was intermittent, having lost and regained the throne 6 times in this period
Demetros	1799-1801	During this time he lost the throne in 1800 and recovered it the same year
Egwale Seyon	1801-1818	Constant civil war during his rule
Iyoas II	1818-1821	-
Gigar	1821-1830	Was a monk before becoming emperor, was called to become emperor after his brother died, he was a figurehead and had intermittent rule
Iyasu IV	1830-1832	Figurehead
Gebre Krestos	1832	Mostly a figurehead, was sent to exile near Lake T’ana but was recalled to rule again but then died shortly afterwards
Sahle Dengel	1832-1855	Intermittent rule, though he was the figurehead much of the rule was done by his regent
Tewodros II	1855-1868	Restored a united and strong Ethiopia – through modernizing the army and building a strong, central state To do this he raised taxes on peasants, seized church land A diplomatic argument with Great Britain (he had taken the British sailors as prisoners) led to his suicide – as they came to get the prisoners he would kill himself in fear Made the first attempt to end slavery in Ethiopia
Era of Modernization	1855-1936	The threat of European imperialism led to the era of modernization - led by Tewodros II
Tekle Giyorgis II	1868-1872	Was never properly crowned emperor – his wife was empress, his rule is often ignored and omitted from records
Yohannes IV	1872-1889	War with Sudan, Ottoman Empire, One of the three most powerful princes in Ethiopia Since he was a sworn enemy of Tewodros, when Great Britain came to overthrow him, Yohannes helped the GB and was given firearms in return During battle he was killed by a sniper Quoted “Ethiopia is your mother: love her. Ethiopia is your country: defend her. Ethiopia is everything to you: die for her.” http://www.peace-on-earth.org/Ethiopia/index.html
Menelik II	1889-1913	New capital founded in Addis Ababa He commissioned first modern hospitals and schools, constructed railroad, modern bank, stamps and currency – he did this in order to maintain independence Defeat Italy in the Battle of Adwa -1896 His conquests allowed the expansion of Ethiopia He succeeded in removing the last Muslim emir ( a commander/ruler) from Ethiopia
Iyasu V	1913-1916	Designated emperor but uncrowned Police force built Continuing modernization During his reign there were issues with his religious affiliations – he was deposed and imprisoned after a short period of time
Zauditu	1916-1930	Female empress, with Ras Tafari as regent During this time slavery was abolished, and there was a push for modernization and the exporting of coffee was a way to fund this Once she passed away – he was the emperor
Haile Selassie I	1930-1974	Last Emperor of Ethiopia His start came from being governor of a province in Ethiopia at age 13 1930 after Zauditu’s death he took throne 1931 He introduced the first constitution (insert a link to the constitution here – saved file) 1936 fled to exile in Great Britain when the Italians came (see more on this below in the section entitled Italian Occupation) 1941 restored to the throne His reign ended with high unemployment, poverty, famine (that took over 200,000 lives) – led to a military coup where he was put under house arrest and died shortly after this (some think murder was the cause but it is still unknown) Haile Selassie I is considered the “jah” of Rastafarianism – learn more in Activity 3: Religions of Ethiopia
Activity: Haile Selassie I, during his reign as Emperor of Ethiopia, gave an influential speech to the United Nations on October 6, 1963. His previous encounter at the United Nations was during the Italian occupation of Ethiopia in 1936. It was at that time he would ask for assistance with the Italian occupation but would receive none. His next address to the UN would occur in 1963. Below are links to his speech. Read over Selassie’s speech and answer the questions below. Link to : Speech Link to : Song Then, listen to Bob Marley’s song entitled “War” when the speech was turned into a song. What messages are they trying to portray to their audiences? Questions on Selassie’s Speech to the United Nations and Bob Marley’s song “War”: What different topics does Selassie address in this speech? (nuclear testing, equality of man, peace, survival of mankind, realization of the powers of the UN, end to the nuclear arms race, fellow humans that care about one another, economic dependency) What do you feel were his main goals of giving this speech to the UN? Why do you think Bob Marley adapted this speech into a song? What were his main messages from the song?
Italian Occupation Second Modernization	1936-1941	Italian Occupation: In 1935 Italians invaded Ethiopia. They would fight in the Second-Italo-Abyssinian War. It was a quick victory for Italy and within the next year they had annexed Ethiopia. No assistance was given to help Ethiopia in this situation and occupation by the fascists would last five years. During that time, Italy did take on road building, construction, along with expanding the capital Addis Ababa. In 1941 their occupation would fail due to Italy entering World War II. Ethiopian and British troops would fight to liberate Ethiopia and Haile Selassie I would retake the thrown. Second Modernization: This time of Second Modernization came after Haile Selassie aligned with Western powers. Because of this he was awarded the former colony of Italy – Eritrea. This allowed Ethiopia to be opened up for trade and allowed them access to Western markets because they had direct access to water and trade through acquiring Eritrea, they were no longer landlocked. The markets increased the coffee exporting revenues. Along with this came assistance (from Western countries, especially the United States) in building roads, hospitals and schools, in establishing an airline and reorganizing the bank and monetary system. This would all create a Second Modernization of Ethiopia.

IX. Eritrean War 1961-1991
In September of 1961, the Eritrean War of Independence began. This war for independence with Ethiopia would last 30 years. Ethiopian forces had been occupying Eritrea since the end of World War II when Italy was defeated and was forced to give up all its colonies in Africa. The Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) formed together to fight against the Ethiopian government. In 1991 many things occurred that would lead to the fall of the Ethiopian government in Eritrea. Their funding from the Soviets ended, morale of the forces dropped and Eritrean forces were advancing on the Ethiopian’s positions. Ethiopia was left landlocked and Eritrea become an independent nation-state.

X. Derg (PMAC) 1974-1991
The Derg Party badge

Photo of a Derg party badge

The last ten years of Selassie’s rule was filled with opposition. Issues such as rising oil prices, and decreasing coffee prices were hurting Ethiopia economically. During his last years, trouble with Eritrea, famine, drought, and discontent led to the monarchy being terminated in 1974. Young military officers formed a military revolutionary organization called the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) or the Derg. The emperor was deposed by the PMAC. During this time a new socialist order was put in place but as time moved on, it became more authoritarian in its leadership. Mengistu Haile Mariam, a leader in the military that overthrew Selassie, lead the Derg from 1977-1991. In the 1980s the Derg declared its commitment to developing a Marxist Ethiopia. In accomplishing this agenda Mariam and the Derg dramatically reduced its contacts with the USA and became was heavily reliant on support from the Soviet Union.
The Derg suppressed opposition through killings and jailing of opponents. This period in the late 1970s and early 1980s is known as the “Red Terror.” There were 1.5 million victims of what can legitimately be considered to be a political genocide that was the result of direct killings and starvation from a famine brought on by drought and the deliberate policy to restrict the distribution of food to food-scarce communities. The news of the famine spread and international aid was given to Ethiopia to help defray the ravages of the famine.
In the late 1980s the an internal opposition to the Derg grew in Ethiopia with assistance from outside powers. By 1991 the opposition was strong enough to force Mengistu Haile Mariam to step down from power. He went into exile in Zimbabwe where he remains until today (2011). In 2006 the International Court of Justice found him guilty of political genocide but the Zimbabwean government of Robert Mugabe protected him from serving an imposed life sentence.

Activity –This activity will focus on genocide and where it has occurred in modern history. It not only has occurred in Ethiopia, but in many countries throughout history – and it is still occurring. Students will become actively involved in defining genocide, finding information on genocides that have and are occurring, and then discuss the role the United States and other countries have in stopping genocide. Students should brainstorm ways they can stop genocide or give aid to those facing genocide.

First – Have students find the definition of genocide – as given by the Genocide Convention. How would they define genocide themselves? Where do they know genocides have occurred? Genocide worksheet

Next – Divide students into groups so that a small group is working on a particular genocide. Have students create a front page to a newspaper that is filled with articles informing the world about what is occurring/ or what occurred in these countries. Have them portray multiple perspectives on their page.

(This is a short list of genocides, to choose others, search the web for lists of more genocides and facts/details about them – one site is http://www.genocidewatch.org/aboutgenocide/genpolmmchart.htm)

XI. Transitional Government 1991-1993
This period was the end of the Derg ruling and time of devastation in Ethiopia. A president in this transitional government would chair a council of 87 representatives. There were many parties that were sharing the government due to the many political and ethnic groups within the country. Meles Zenawi became an interim president at this time from the years 1991-1995. He previously had led the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) which took over the Ethiopian government from Haile Mengistu. After leading Ethiopia as president, in the 1995 elections he was voted in as Prime Minister (where he remains today--2011).

Photo of Meles Zenawi
Meles Zenawi

XII. EPRDF (Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front) 1993-Present
In 1995 the elections brought a new order into Ethiopia. The country became divided into regions based upon ethnic lines – though it was opposed by some in fear that it would take away a national unity in the country. There were a total of 14 regions. Property that was previously taken away could be reclaimed. In 1996 the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was born.

May 1998- Border issues with Eritrea
Continuing border conflict once again emerged in Ethiopia. This conflict would be called the Eritrean-Ethiopian Border War, starting in May 1998 and lasting until June 2000. Not only was this war fought in the air but it was also fought on ground. Tens of thousands of troops died from each country and the war cost millions of dollars. Foreign agencies and countries attempted to step in and mediate between the two countries to bring peace but failed to do this. Famine and drought again plagued the region and caused displacement of citizens (as did the war) of both countries. In December of 2000, a treaty was signed and UN Peacekeeping forces were sent into the buffer zone. The final ruling from the UN Border Commissions (http://www.un.org/NewLinks/eebcarbitration/) was that Badme would be granted to Eritrea but it seems that Ethiopians still considers it part of their country. Though the treaty was signed, there is still some hostility between the two countries and they do not have diplomatic relations. There is still fear that a border war could break out once again.

Questions to consider:

Why do countries fight over borders? What are some other examples of border wars?
Why do international agencies and foreign countries try to mediate? Is this good or bad?
Why do you feel this piece of land may be so important to both countries?

Activity: Hold a debate within your class. Divide students into two groups – Ethiopia and Eritrea. Have them come up with reasons why their country should acquire the town of Badme. Use resources from the lesson and other websites to help you build your argument.

Ethiopia’s Relationship with Somalia
Ethiopia’s southeastern neighbor is Somalia. 1,600 km. of Ethiopia’s border is along the country of Somalia. The Ethiopian region closest to Somalia is called Somali, and over 95% of the regions inhabitants are Somali. It is this region that at times was called “Greater Somalia” due to the large percentage of Somalis that make their home there. It is the issue of land and religion that have caused conflict with Ethiopia and Somalia. There have been many conflicts over the past centuries. Most recently the following incidences have caused strained relations between the neighbors:

Border Dispute from 1960-1964
Ogaden War from 1977-1978 (Somalia invades Ethiopia to claim “Greater Somalia” as theirs)
August Border Clash in 1982
Warlord era cross-border warfare from 1998-2000
Militant Islamist (Islamic Courts Union – ICU) conflict starting in 2006 (Ethiopia invades Somalia)

Ethiopia also has many times in the past few decades been home to Somali refugee camps.

Go to: Activity Three: Expand (Religions of Ethiopia)

Or to:

Home | Curriculum | Activities | Countries | Events